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Thylakoids are membrane-bound compartments inside chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. They are the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. Thylakoids consist of a thylakoid membrane surrounding a thylakoid lumen. Chloroplast thylakoids frequently form stacks of disks referred to as grana (singular: granum). Grana are connected by intergranal or stromal thylakoids, which join granum stacks together as a single functional compartment. In thylakoid membranes, chlorophyll pigments are found in packets called quantasomes. Each quantasome contains 230 to 250 chlorophyll molecules. Etymology The word Thylakoid comes from the Greek word thylakos or θύλακος, meaning "sac" or "pouch". Thus, thylakoid means "sac-like" or "pouch-like". Structure Thylakoids are membrane-bound structures embedded in the chloroplast stroma. A stack of thylakoids is called a granum and resembles a stack of coins. Membrane The thylakoid membrane is the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis with the photosynthetic pigments embedded directly in the membrane. It is an alternating pattern of dark and light bands measuring each 1 nanometre. The thylakoid lipid bilayer shares characteristic features with prokaryotic membranes and the inner chloroplast membrane. For example, acidic lipids can be found in thylakoid membranes, cyanobacteria and other photosynthetic bacteria and are involved in the functional integrity of the photosystems. The thylakoid membranes of higher plants are composed primarily of phospholipids and galactolipids that are asymmetrically arranged along and across the membranes. Thylakoid membranes are richer in galactolipids rather than phospholipids; also they predominantly consist of hexagonal phase II forming monogalacotosyl diglyceride lipid. Despite this unique composition, plant thylakoid membranes have been shown to assume largely lipid-bilayer dynamic organization. Lipids forming the thylakoid membranes, richest in high-fluidity linolenic acid are synthesized in a complex pathway involving exchange of lipid precursors between the endoplasmic reticulum and inner membrane of the plastid envelope and transported from the inner membrane to the thylakoids via vesicles. Lumen The thylakoid lumen is a continuous aqueous phase enclosed by the thylakoid membrane. It plays an important role for photophosphorylation during photosynthesis. During the light-dependent reaction, protons are pumped across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen making it acidic down to pH 4. Granum and stroma lamellae In higher plants thylakoids are organized into a granum-stroma membrane assembly. A granum (plural grana) is a stack of thylakoid discs. Chloroplasts can have from 10 to 100 grana. Grana are connected by stroma thylakoids, also called intergranal thylakoids or lamellae. Grana thylakoids and stroma thylakoids can be distinguished by their different protein composition. Grana contribute to chloroplasts' large surface area to volume ratio. A recent electron tomography study of the thylakoid membranes has shown that the stroma lamellae are organized in wide sheets perpendicular to the grana stack axis and form multiple right-handed helical surfaces at the granal interface. Left-handed helical surfaces consolidate between the right-handed helices and sheets. This complex network of alternating helical membrane surfaces of different radii and pitch was shown to minimize the surface and bending energies of the membranes. This new model, the most extensive one generated to date, revealed that features from two, seemingly contradictory, older models coexist in the structure. Notably, similar arrangements of helical elements of alternating handedness, often referred to as "parking garage" structures, were proposed to be present in the endoplasmic reticulum and in ultradense nuclear matter. This structural organization may constitute a fundamental geometry for connecting between densely packed layers or sheets. Formation Chloroplasts develop from proplastids when seedlings emerge from the ground. Thylakoid formation requires light. In the plant embryo and in the absence of light, proplastids develop into etioplasts that contain semicrystalline membrane structures called prolamellar bodies. When exposed to light, these prolamellar bodies develop into thylakoids. This does not happen in seedlings grown in the dark, which undergo etiolation. An underexposure to light can cause the thylakoids to fail. This causes the chloroplasts to fail resulting to the death of the plant. Thylakoid formation requires the action of vesicle-inducing protein in plastids 1 (VIPP1). Plants cannot survive without this protein, and reduced VIPP1 levels lead to slower growth and paler plants with reduced ability to photosynthesize. VIPP1 appears to be required for basic thylakoid membrane formation, but not for the assembly of protein complexes of the thylakoid membrane. It is conserved in all organisms containing thylakoids, including cyanobacteria, green algae, such as Chlamydomonas, and higher plants, such as Arabidopsis thaliana. Isolation and fractionation Thylakoids can be purified from plant cells using a combination of differential and gradient centrifugation. Disruption of isolated thylakoids, for example by mechanical shearing, releases the lumenal fraction. Peripheral and integral membrane fractions can be extracted from the remaining membrane fraction. Treatment with sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) detaches peripheral membrane proteins, whereas treatment with detergents and organic solvents solubilizes integral membrane proteins. Proteins Thylakoids contain many integral and peripheral membrane proteins, as well as lumenal proteins. Recent proteomics studies of thylakoid fractions have provided further details on the protein composition of the thylakoids. These data have been summarized in several plastid protein databases that are available online.According to these studies, the thylakoid proteome consists of at least 335 different proteins. Out of these, 89 are in the lumen, 116 are integral membrane proteins, 62 are peripheral proteins on the stroma side, and 68 peripheral proteins on the lumenal side. Additional low-abundance lumenal proteins can be predicted through computational methods. Of the thylakoid proteins with known functions, 42% are involved in photosynthesis. The next largest functional groups include proteins involved in protein targeting, processing and folding with 11%, oxidative stress response (9%) and translation (8%). Integral membrane proteins Thylakoid membranes contain integral membrane proteins which play an important role in light-harvesting and the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. There are four major protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane: Photosystems I and II Cytochrome b6f complex ATP synthasePhotosystem II is located mostly in the grana thylakoids, whereas photosystem I and ATP synthase are mostly located in the stroma thylakoids and the out.... Discover the Al Granum popular books. Find the top 100 most popular Al Granum books.

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    Man In The Water

    Jon Hill

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    Lexy Timms

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    Nothing to Hide

    Scarlett Finn

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    Salvation

    Meghan O'Flynn

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    Roma Cordon

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    Mark Lesky

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    The Four Loves

    C. S. Lewis

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    Masters of Restraint

    Ines Johnson

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    Little Women

    Louisa May Alcott

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    Wuthering Heights

    Emily Brontë

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    Christmas in Sweetbriar Cove

    Melody Grace

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    W.J. May

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    Ben Leighton

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    Roxy Sloane

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    Carrie Lomax

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    Sierra Cross

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    Jane Austen

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    Lacey Silks

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    Linda Seed

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    Lexy Timms

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    The Cupcake Cottage

    Jean Oram

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    The Next Girl

    Carla Kovach

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    Think and Grow Rich

    Greg Habstritt & Napoleon Hill

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    Betty Rowlands

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    Always Yours

    Claire Raye

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    A Christmas Carol

    Charles Dickens

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    Lila Monroe

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    David J Antocci

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    Cassandra Dean

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    Lexy Timms

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    The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes

    Arthur Conan Doyle

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    Holy Bible

    The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

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    You Are Kind

    Michael Gordon

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    Get Lucky

    Lila Monroe

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    Inception of Gold

    Lexy Timms

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    Silenced Girls

    Roger Stelljes

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    Awaken Me

    Jenna Jacob

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    Once Upon A One-Night Stand

    Zoey Locke

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    The Art of War

    Sun Tzu

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    Tempting the King

    Jessa York

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    Peace on Earth

    Maia Ross

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    Law of Attraction

    Jordan Hollis

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    Assisting the Bosshole

    Kristin MacQueen

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    The Holy Bible - King James Version

    King James

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    Hard Love

    Peyton Banks

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    My Paper Heart

    Magan Vernon

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    The Honeymoon Homicide

    J. R. Mathis & Susan Mathis

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  • The Count of Monte Cristo synopsis, comments

    The Count of Monte Cristo

    Alexandre Dumas

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    Alpha

    Sybil Bartel

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    The Stoic Mind

    Addy Osmani & GoLimitlesss

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