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The alpine salamander (Salamandra atra) is a black salamander that can be found in the French Alps, and through the mountainous range in Europe. It is a member of the genus Salamandra. Their species name, atra, may be derived from the Latin ater, meaning dull black. The salamanders' coloration has evolved over time, as some species are completely monochrome black and others have yellow spotting and marks. Their life expectancy is at least 10 years. There are four subspecies of the alpine salamander, with varied distribution and physical coloration. Unlike other salamanders, whose larvae are developed in water, the alpine salamander and its subspecies are a fully terrestrial species in life and gestation. They give birth to live young.Alpine salamanders produce toxic compounds from their skin. These compounds may protect them from both predator and microbial threats. Description Alpine salamanders are often small in size, and dark brown or black. Members of the subspecies are not wholly black or brown monochrome, but rather have mosaic or spotted patterns. Members of the subspecies Salamandra atra aurorae have bright splotches on its dorsal side and head. The color is often bright yellow, but can range to shades of white or even gray. Distribution of the pigment is dependent on the distribution of certain cells, so may be smooth and even or patchy.Female S. atra tend to be larger than the males, and can grow up to 151 millimeters, or around 5.9 inches. Males will grow to around 144 millimeters, or 5.6 inches: both measurements include the tail. Males have swollen, visible cloacae, and are more slender than females. The salamanders have parotid glands posterior and lateral to their eyes, giving them an elongated head shape. They tend to have between 11 and 13 costal grooves along the sides of their bodies, and a double row of dorsal glands runs down their backs on either side of their spines, down to the tips of their tails. Coloration Most alpine salamanders that are either completely black (melanistic) or predominantly black have the dark pigment as a baseline, but the evolution behind this dark coloring has a winding history. Scientists have studied the hypothesis of if the salamanders start completely black, or if they evolved like that over time. DNA-evidence traced through maternal lineages suggest the latter: that salamanders evolved their black coloration over time.Biological pigmentation is determined by presentation of specific color-producing cells, called chromatophores, which absorb and/or reflect light in a particular way to then appear as a color. In S. atra, there are different cells present or activated, which yield different colors: melanophores contribute to the dark coloration by producing the dark pigment melanin, while xanthophores produce a yellow pigment, and iridophores are simply light-reflecting. The fully-black phenotype seen in S. a. atra results from the salamanders' melanophores in the dermis and epidermis, producing melanin alone. Xanthophore-iridophore complexes are responsible for production of yellow spotting, which appears bright. In species without yellow patches, it appears that they do not ever develop these cells. In S. a. aurorae or other salamanders with different coloration on different parts of their body, two distinct skin types are present: one that only contains melanophores (black), and one that has melanophores, xanthophores, and iridophores in combination.The yellow coloring on some alpine salamanders is thought to be an aposematic strategy to fend off predation. The pure black coloring is also hypothesized to be a form of thermoregulation, though it may also be considered a warning to some predators. Taxonomy and subspecies S. a. atra is a fully melanistic (black) subspecies from central, eastern and Dinaric Alps. This subspecies is the most widespread. S. a. aurorae, the golden alpine salamander, has golden or yellow spots on its back and primarily lives in a small area in the Venetian Prealps near Asiago, and in the Italian Alps. S. a. pasubiensis, with fewer yellow spots than S. a. aurorae, lives in a different part of the Venetian Prealps. S. a. prenjensis lives on Prenj Mountain, part of the Dinaric Alps in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The validity of this subspecies is yet to be confirmed, and some scientists in the field debate if this salamander should be considered its own independent species.Genetic analysis suggests that the Corsican fire salamander (Salamandra corsica) is the closest related species, and the black-yellow coloration is an ancestral feature of alpine salamanders. Proposed colonization from south (Prealps) to Alps was carried out by the fully melanistic (derived feature) S. a. atra after the last retreat of the ice sheets. Habitat and distribution Habitat As terrestrial organisms, these salamanders live on land. S. atra tend to live underneath stones or logs, or in rocky crevices in their mountainous habitat. They also are diurnal, and most active in the day with periods of inactivity, rest, or sleep at night. They will engage in nocturnal activity on a weather-dependent basis. Ideal weather for alpine salamanders is rainy or post-rain, at temperatures between 3 and 18 °C (37.4 and 64.4 °F). Geographic distribution The alpine salamander is found from the France–Switzerland border at the western end of its range, all the way through Austria to the Dinaric Alps at the eastern edge of its territory. This salamander typically lives at altitudes above 700 metres (2,300 ft) above sea level, even reaching 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) of elevation. The western Alps (in France and Italy) are inhabited by a similar species, Lanza's alpine salamander (Salamandra lanzai), in only one small area. S. atra generally live in forested biomes, particularly deciduous-coniferous mixes. They also can inhabit meadows or grasslands in the mountains, and tend to do well with a mix of tree types.Their range spans several nations, including: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Hersegovina, Montenegro, Kosovo, France, Italy, Austria. Home range and territoriality They thrive in forest environments that have silver fir and beech trees. Coniferous forests that have high proportions of Norway spruce and European larch trees also provide adequate habitats, even though the salamanders live on the ground floor. Because alpine salamanders are completely terrestrial, they have on-land territories that they tend to return to throughout the day and for refuge. They often return to the same sites for much of their lives. Any time that they leave their sites, they expose themselves to predation and also to the chance of losing their site. Alpine salamanders are ectothermic, so losing a refuge or shelter could leave them exposed to the elements and be extremely costly, if not fatal, due their lack of an internal thermoregulation mechanism.  This high dependency on a quality nest site supports the theory that many terrestrial salamanders, including .... Discover the Liber Matteucci popular books. Find the top 100 most popular Liber Matteucci books.

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    Betty Rowlands

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    Jon Hill

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    The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

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    Jessa York

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    Alexandre Dumas

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    Melissa Belle

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    Roxie Noir

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    Kimber White

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    The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes

    Arthur Conan Doyle

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    Scarlett Finn

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    Sigmund Freud

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    Jordan Hollis

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    Ines Johnson

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    Jennie Kew

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    Salvation

    Meghan O'Flynn

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    Amelia Addler

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    Michael Gordon

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    Bram Stoker

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    A Bookshop to Die For

    M.P. Black

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    The Icing on the Cake

    Linda Seed

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