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This list of ancient watermills presents an overview of water-powered grain-mills and industrial mills in classical antiquity from their Hellenistic beginnings through the Roman imperial period. The watermill is the earliest instance of a machine harnessing natural forces to replace human muscular labour (apart from the sail). As such, it holds a special place in the history of technology and also in economic studies where it is associated with growth. The initial invention of the watermill appears to have occurred in the hellenized eastern Mediterranean in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great and the rise of Hellenistic science and technology. In the subsequent Roman era, the use of water-power was diversified and different types of watermills were introduced. These include all three variants of the vertical water wheel as well as the horizontal water wheel. Apart from its main use in grinding flour, water-power was also applied to pounding grain, crushing ore, sawing stones and possibly fulling and bellows for iron furnaces. An increased research interest has greatly improved our knowledge of Roman watermill sites in recent years. Numerous archaeological finds in the western half of the empire now complement the surviving documentary material from the eastern provinces; they demonstrate that the breakthrough of watermill technology occurred as early as the 1st century AD and was not delayed until the onset of the Middle Ages as previously thought. The data shows a wide spread of grain-mills over most parts of the empire, with industrial mills also being in evidence in both halves. Although the prevalence of grain-mills naturally meant that watermilling remained a typically rural phenomenon, it also rose in importance in the urban environment. The data below spans the period until ca. 500 AD. The vast majority dates to Roman times. Earliest evidence Below the earliest ancient evidence for different types of watermills and the use of water-power for various industrial processes. This list is continued for the early Middle Ages here. Written sources In the following, literary, epigraphical and documentary sources referring to watermills and other water-driven machines are listed. Graphical representations This section deals with depictions of watermills which are preserved in ancient paintings, reliefs, mosaics, etc. Archaeological finds Watermill sites Below are listed excavated or surveyed watermill sites dated to the ancient period. Millstones The following list comprises stray finds of ancient millstones. Note that there is no way to distinguish millstones driven by water-power from those powered by animals turning a capstan. Most, however, are assumed to derive from watermills. Water wheels and other components Although more rare than the massive millstones, finds of wooden and iron parts of the mill machinery can also point to the existence of ancient watermills. Large stone mortars have been found at many mines; their deformations suggest automated crushing mills worked by water wheels. References Notes Sources Watermill lists which summarize the rapidly developing state of research are provided by Wikander 1985 and Brun 2006, with additions by Wilson 1995 and 2002. Spain 2008 undertakes a technical analysis of around thirty known ancient mill sites. Ad, Uzi; Saʿid, ʿAbd al-Salam; Frankel, Rafael (2005), "Water-mills with Pompeian-type Millstones at Nahal Tanninim", Israel Exploration Journal, vol. 55, no. 2, pp. 156–171 Amouric, Henri; Thernot, Robert; Vacca-Goutouli, Mireille; Bruneton, Hélène (2000), "Un moulin à turbine de la fin de l'Antiquité. La Calade du Castellet (Fontvieille)", in Leveau, Philippe; Saquet, J. P. (eds.), Milieu et sociétés dans la Vallée des Baux. Études présentées au colloque de Mouriès, Revue Archéologique de Narbonnaise (Supplement), vol. 31, Montpellier: Association de la Revue Archéologique de Narbonnaise, pp. 261–274, ISBN 978-2-84269-369-5 Brun, Jean-Pierre (2006), "L'energie hydraulique durant l'Empire romain: quel impact sur l'economie agricole?", in Lo Cascio, Elio (ed.), Innovazione tecnica e progresso economico nel mondo romano: atti degli Incontri capresi di storia dell'economia antica (Capri 13-16 Aprile 2003), Bari: Edipuglia, pp. 101–130, ISBN 978-88-7228-405-6 Brun, Jean-Pierre; Borréani, Marc (1998), "Deux moulins hydrauliques du Haut-Empire romain en Narbonnaise: Villae des Mesclans à La Crau et de Saint-Pierre/Les Laurons aux Arcs (Var)", Gallia, vol. 55, pp. 279–326 Brun, Jean-Pierre; Leguilloux, Martine Leguilloux (2014), "Les installations artisanales romaines de Saepinum. Tannerie et moulin hydraulique", Collection du Centre Jean Bérard 43, Archéologie de l’artisanat antique 7, Naples: Centre Jean Bérard, ISSN 1590-3869 Burnham, Barry C. (1997), "Roman Mining at Dolaucothi: The Implications of the 1991–3 Excavations near the Carreg Pumsaint", Britannia, vol. 28, pp. 325–336, doi:10.2307/526771 Champagne, Frédéric; Ferdière, Alain; Rialland, Yannick (1997), "Re-découverte d'un moulin à eau augustéen sur l'Yèvre (Cher)", Revue archéologique du Centre de la France, vol. 36, pp. 157–160 Czysz, Wolfgang (1994), "Eine bajuwarische Wassermühle im Paartal bei Dasing", Antike Welt, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 152–154 Donners, K.; Waelkens, M.; Deckers, J. (2002), "Water Mills in the Area of Sagalassos: A Disappearing Ancient Technology", Anatolian Studies, vol. 52, pp. 1–17, doi:10.2307/3643076, JSTOR 3643076 Geilenbrügge, Udo (2010), Älteste Wassermühle Mitteleuropas entdeckt (PDF), Archäologie in Deutschland, vol. 2010/1, Stuttgart: Theiss, p. 4, ISSN 0176-8522 Geilenbrügge, Udo; Schürmann, Wilhelm (2010), "Die älteste Wassermühle Mitteleuropas im Indetal bei Altdorf?", in Kunow, Jürgen (ed.), Archäologie im Rheinland 2009, Archäologie im Rheinland, Stuttgart: Theiss, pp. 62–64, ISBN 978-3-8062-2383-5 Greene, Kevin (2000), "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered", The Economic History Review, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 29–59, doi:10.1111/1468-0289.00151 Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", Journal of Roman Archaeology, vol. 20, pp. 138–163 Spain, Robert (1984), "Romano-British Watermills", Archaeologia Cantiana, vol. 100, Kent Archaeological Society, pp. 101–128 Spain, Robert (1984b), "The Second-Century Romano-British watermill at Ickham, Kent", History of Technology, vol. 9, pp. 143–180 Spain, Robert (2008), The Power and Performance of Roman Water-mills. Hydro-mechanical Analysis of Vertical-wheeled Water-mills, British Archaeological Reports. International Series, vol. 1786, Oxford: Archaeopress, ISBN 978-1-4073-0217-1 Wikander, Örjan (1985), "Archaeological Evidence for Early Water-Mills. An Interim Report", History of Technology, vol. 10, pp. 151–179 Wikander, Örjan (2000a), "The Water.... 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